Piano Evolution:

Tracing the Dominance of 12TET

The development of the piano as an instrument is closely tied to the spread of 12-tone equal temperament (12-TET). This page will delve into the relationship between the two from a historical perspective.

In contemporary discourse, there are various interpretations of the role of microtones in Western music history, along with many explanations about microtonal pianos.
This page aims to provide a unique perspective on microtonal pianos by revisiting their history, focusing on the aspect of "bodily listening and sensation" emphasized in this project (See Timbral Revelations). In other words, here, I would like to examine the history of the relationship between microtones and the piano from a performer's perspective.

A recurring question throughout this project is, "Why did composers choose to use microtones on the piano, and what did they aim to achieve through this choice?"
This inquiry reflects a consistent engagement with composers' intentions and the expressive possibilities unleashed by microtones.

This page will first touch on the historical and technical aspects of the relationship between microtones and the piano, and then move on to the sensory and experiential aspects most relevant to the project as a whole.

The page is structured as follows:

1. The rise and standardization of 12-TET: Exploring the transition from diverse tuning systems to 12-TET up to the mid-19th century and its impact.
2. Transformation of musical expression: Examining the changes brought about by the spread of 12-TET in Western music and the reactions to it.
3. Return to microtones: Surveying attempts by early 20th-century composers to break free from 12-TET.
4. Physicality and musical expression: Examining the exploration of bodily musical experience through microtones, focusing on Partch and Scelsi.
5. Development into acoustic exploration: Discussing the focus on the physical properties of sound by composers like Grisey and the possibilities for new musical expression.

Through these topics, I would like to examine the development of microtonal pianos and the possibilities they brought to musical expression from multiple angles.

The Rise and Standardization of 12-Tone Equal Temperament

As mentioned in the project's introduction, the development of the piano as an instrument is closely tied to the spread of 12-tone equal temperament (12TET). This chapter delves deeper into the relationship between the two.

Until the mid-19th century, Western music employed a diverse range of tuning systems. Composers and performers relied on their ears to determine tuning, often using different temperaments depending on the character of the piece. This diversity is evident from Ross W. Duffin's writings and Owen Jorgensen's research.

According to Duffin, "Temperament is a way of tuning the notes of the scale using intervals that have been modified (tempered) from their pure forms. The usual reason for doing this is utility, which is to make a tuning system more useful in a wider variety of musical situations".^[1]

Jorgensen considers 1917 a turning point in tuning history. He states, "Before 1917, tempering was an art based on a keen sense of color awareness for each individual interval or chord on the piano. This color sense that was developed through environmental conditioning by listening to tunings and piano music during the nineteenth century is now lost".^[2]

Furthermore, Alexander J. Ellis noted in 1864 that what was then called "equal temperament" was not mathematically precise: "[ET] is, however, so difficult to realize by the ordinary methods of tuning, that 'equal temperament' ... has probably never been attained in this country, with any approach to mathematical precision".^[3]

These accounts confirm the diversity of tuning systems in Western music up to the mid-19th century. Composers and performers made judgments by ear, using different temperaments according to the piece's character.

This historical context suggests that music composed before the mid-19th century loses certain musical nuances when performed in modern equal temperament. To fully understand such music, one would need to consider the diversity of tuning systems the composers had in mind.

By the mid-19th century, the need for 12TET arose more from industrial instrument production than musical demands.
While the evolution of Western tuning systems from Pythagorean to just intonation, meantone, and equal temperament was influenced by contemporary sensibilities and preferences, the shift to 12TET marked a departure from these sensory factors.
It was driven more by social circumstances surrounding instrument production than by a desire for a new tuning system based on aural judgment.

Mass production of pianos began in the 1850s, reflecting the Industrial Revolution's impact on instrument manufacturing. With the rise of mass-produced pianos, 12TET was introduced as a uniform tuning system applicable to these numerous instruments. The adoption of 12TET resulted from changing industrial conditions, reflecting a modern approach prioritizing functionality and efficiency.

The transition to 12TET led to a loss of musical color. Mahler lamented the abandonment of meantone temperaments with the adoption of 12TET, considering it a significant loss for Western music. This major loss refers to the unique timbres present in unequal temperaments like meantone. These timbres, arising from subtle differences in scale intervals, gave distinct characteristics to different keys.
However, in 12TET, with its uniform intervals, such key-specific features were entirely lost. Consequently, modulation between keys no longer produced the dynamic effects of tonal changes seen in meantone or well temperaments, becoming merely a shift in pitch range.^[4]

After the adoption of 12-TET, the lost timbral characteristics and colors in music seem to have been compensated for by the development of orchestral music and the diverse timbres of various instruments. Interest shifted from appreciating the subtle timbres of unequal temperaments to the varied timbres of instruments and their combinations. The diversity of temperaments transitioned to a diversity of timbres, enriching the musical landscape with various sound textures.^[5]

The publication of William Braid White's "Modern Piano Tuning and Allied Arts" manual in 1917 established the science of piano tuning based on 12-TET.
Furthermore, at an international conference held in London in 1939, A=440Hz was proposed as the standard pitch^[6], and it was adopted as an ISO standard in 1955.^[7]
This promoted the international standardization of 12-TET.

During this standardization process, the piano spread worldwide as an instrument embodying 12-TET. As a result, the piano became so universal that the mere mention of "piano keys" instantly conveys images of specific notes and scales.

Transformation of Musical Expression

In the early 20th century, Western music reached a major turning point. The widespread adoption of 12-tone equal temperament (12-TET) facilitated easier handling of intervals, leading to increased use of chromatic harmonic progressions, dissonances, and complex modulations. This trend, notably seen in Wagner's music, destabilized and eventually collapsed the tonal order that had supported Western music.

The breakdown of tonality led to the search for new compositional methods. A new way of organizing the 12 equal pitches was sought, resulting in Arnold Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique. This technique is characterized by treating all 12 equal pitches equally, without the framework of tonality or rules of harmony. This established a new musical style called "atonality".

Serialism, which developed from the twelve-tone technique, strengthened the Germanic tendency to prioritize systems, potentially suppressing musical individuality and diversity.
This trend continued until the 1970s, influencing many composers.

Ryuichi Sakamoto points out the constraints of this situation: "Even when expressing through piano, the timbres, melodies, and chords that can be produced using 88 keys are inescapably Western music, whether it's Mozart or Steve Reich".^[8] (Further reading: 'Non-History' in 'Microtones in Motion')

The process from the spread of 12-TET to atonal music, twelve-tone technique, and serialism opened up new possibilities for musical expression.
However, it also led to an increased focus on systems, raising issues of suppressing individuality and diversity. This situation prompted many composers to explore new forms of musical expression.

Return to Microtones

At the dawn of the 20th century, composers' interest in microtones rapidly increased as they sought to expand the expressive capabilities of Western music beyond the confines of the 12-tone equal temperament (12-TET) system.
This interest was not limited to a single region but was an international phenomenon, with composers such as Alois Hába, Ivan Wyschnegradsky, Julián Carrillo, and Charles Ives contributing to the development of microtonal piano music.

As Kate Molleson points out, "Musically, philosophically, spiritually, the pursuit of smaller intervals at the dawn of the twentieth century posed fundamental questions for composers around the globe. What were the cultural, psychological, expressive, even moral implications of warping what had been the bedrock of Western art music for the past two centuries?"^[9]

For example, Alois Hába was influenced by the folk music of his native Moravia, which featured intervals smaller than a semitone. This desire to incorporate microtones into his compositions led him to develop systems using quarter-tones and sixth-tones. Similarly, Ivan Wyschnegradsky, inspired by Scriabin's mystical music, pursued new harmonic possibilities using quarter-tones.^[10]

In Mexico, Julián Carrillo devised a system that divided the octave into 96 parts, which he named "Sonido 13" (13th Sound), based on experiments with stringed instruments.
As Molleson notes, "He was certain that the twelve-tone scale had reached its limit. With that he joined the ranks of avant-gardists, all arguing that the inevitable direction of musical travel in the twentieth century was to break through chromaticism and embrace the notes between notes."^[11]

Charles Ives^[12], influenced by his father's experiments with microtonal devices inspired by church bells, composed works for quarter-tone piano, pushing the boundaries of conventional harmony.

However, as Fujieda points out^[13], despite these individual efforts, early explorations of microtones were often viewed as further subdivisions of the 12-tone system rather than significant musical or acoustic breakthroughs.
By subdividing the twelve divisions of equal temperament, it became possible to achieve chord resonances, harmonic progressions, and subtle melodic inflections that were not possible with the original equal temperament.
However, this subdivision was still based on the equal intervals of equal temperament and can be considered an extension of it. In other words, the acoustic defects inherent in equal temperament were still unresolved.

Nevertheless, these efforts laid the foundation for future explorations in microtones and expanded the palette of available musical expression.
Following these early 20th-century pioneers of microtonal composition, the exploration of microtonal possibilities in the piano continued to evolve, driven by the desire to expand the instrument's timbral and expressive capabilities.
Composers sought to unlock new sonic worlds and modes of musical expression beyond the limitations of 12-TET, often inspired by non-Western musical traditions and fascinated by the physics of sound and the possibilities for greater nuance and subtlety in tuning and timbre.

Of particular relevance to this project is how composers like Harry Partch and Giacinto Scelsi further developed this exploration, developing new approaches that emphasized bodily listening and sensation.
Their innovative approaches not only reconsidered the piano as an instrument but also raised fundamental questions about the nature of music itself and how we listen to and feel it.

The next section will examine in detail how these composers developed new approaches emphasizing bodily listening and sensation, pioneering new dimensions of musical experience through microtones.

Physicality and Musical Expression

Harry Partch's innovative approach to music was fundamentally a rebellion against the constraints of the "prison bars" of 12-tone equal temperament^[14].
In his seminal work "Genesis of a Music," Partch outlines his conception of a musical system based on just intonation, which he believed was more aligned with natural harmonics and thus more faithful to the physical nature of sound and human perception.^[15]

Partch criticized the standard orchestration of his time, feeling it inhibited individual expression and reduced music to mere acoustic sculpture devoid of human emotion. He argued that in modern orchestras, sounds become homogenized, with the unique timbres of individual instruments and performers getting lost in the ensemble, resulting in abstract and impersonal music.^[16]

To pursue a more physical and expressive musical language, Partch developed his own instruments and scale system capable of microtonal performance. This not only challenged conventional musical tuning norms but also reintegrated the visual and physical aspects of musical performance, making the act of music-making a more holistic and human-centered experience.^[17]

Partch's dedication to creating physical music was not just about changing the scale, but about transforming the essence of musical performance into a more immersive and sensory experience. His works deviated significantly from conventional music theory, emphasizing the importance of bodily experience in the musical process and advocating for music that resonates more deeply with the physical and emotional realities of human life. (Related pages: 'Resonant Self', for their exploration of resonance with physical and emotional realities, 'Timbral Revelations').

In the exploration of microtones in piano, there is a significant transition from Harry Partch to Giacinto Scelsi. While both composers deeply focused on the physical connection between sound and the human body, their approaches and philosophies differed in specifics.

Partch's radical departure from traditional Western music, including the development of new instruments and a 43-tone scale, was driven by his concept of "corporalism," which emphasized the concrete and physical aspects of music and rejected the abstract, disembodied nature of contemporary classical music.

On the other hand, Scelsi approached the physicality of sound from a mystical perspective, viewing timbre not just as a musical element but as a living entity. (See Spirited Away in that it can be seen as related to animism.)
He criticized Western classical music for focusing all attention on the skeletal framework called musical form (As Said also points out in 'Imperialism and Colonialism as Reflected in Musical Forms' in 'Musical Crossroads'.), emphasizing instead the importance of studying the laws of sound energy and considering music from the perspective of energy as life.
As Scelsi stated:

"I will say only that in general, western classical music has devoted practically all of its attention to the musical framework, which it calls the musical form. It has neglected to study the laws of sonorous energy, to think of music in terms of energy, which is life. Thus it has produced thousands of magnificent frameworks which are often rather empty, for they are only the results of a constructive imagination, which is very different from the creative imagination. The melodies themselves move from sound to sound, but the intervals are empty abysses, for the notes lack sonic energy. The inner space is empty."

Scelsi, Giacinto. Son et musique. Translated by Gregory N. Reish. In Reish, Gregory N. "UNA NOTA SOLA: GIACINTO SCELSI AND THE GENESIS OF MUSIC ON A SINGLE NOTE." Journal of Musicological Research 25 (2006): 149-89.

Scelsi viewed musical forms produced as a result of constructive rather than creative imagination as 'empty', and described intervals lacking sound energy as 'empty abysses'. This perspective emphasizes the importance of each sound's independence and the relationships between them. (Related pages: ’ma‘ - In the sense of a contraposition of ’ma‘.)

This way of thinking by Scelsi resonates with what I noticed by listening to the differences within a single sound through partial tuning. This perspective also aligns with Deleuze's concept of "micro-perception," suggesting the importance of perceiving minute changes and vibrations in sound, as mentioned in 'SoundVortex Awakening'.

"Scelsi adopted microtones because the evolution of his style led him to microtones, and his aesthetics demanded it."

Reish, Gregory N. ‘UNA NOTA SOLA: GIACINTO SCELSI AND THE GENESIS OF MUSIC ON A SINGLE NOTE’. Journal of Musicological Research 25 (2006): 149–89.

Scelsi explored the intricacies of microtones through improvisation and recording, later transcribing these explorations into formal compositions. This method allowed Scelsi to delve deeply into the nuances of sound, making the act of listening a central and embodied experience for both performer and audience. He viewed himself as an "intermediary" between the divine and earthly realms, serving as a channel for spiritual realms to manifest in sound.^[18]

Scelsi's approach to composition and performance was deeply rooted in his quest for a more profound connection with sound itself (Related page: 'Aidagara'), beyond the constraints of traditional Western tuning systems. He viewed the tone, or the single pitch, not as a fixed entity but as a living, vibrating essence that contains a multitude of microtonal variations and possibilities. This perspective led him to explore the inner dimensions of sound, using microtonal fluctuations (Related page: 'Echoes of Youth') to access the "space between the notes" where he believed the true essence of music resides.^[19]

In 2016, the Scelsi Foundation organized a unique project to gain a deeper understanding of Giacinto Scelsi's musical vision. The focus of this project was to recreate the 'natural state' of the piano in Scelsi's home. Over time, the piano in Scelsi's home had naturally 'deviated' from 12-tone equal temperament. Importantly, Scelsi composed by listening to the sound of this 'deviated piano'.

In this project, pianist Aki Takahashi performed the same piece on two pianos. One was tuned to standard pitch, while the other faithfully reproduced the condition of the piano in Scelsi's home. This setup allowed for the recreation of the 'original' soundscape that Scelsi actually heard.
It can be said that Scelsi's music was deeply influenced by the timbre of the piano that had naturally deviated from 12-tone equal temperament.

This way of thinking also aligns with Ryuichi Sakamoto's concept of the 'tsunami piano' (See Interlude: Ancient Future Echoes). Sakamoto viewed the piano transformed by natural forces not as mere destruction, but as a process of 'struggling to return to its natural state'. Similarly, the piano in Scelsi's home was transformed by the natural force of time, creating new musical possibilities.

Both examples seem to suggest that the 'imperfections' or 'deviations' of instruments liberated from the artificial system of 12-tone equal temperament can actually be a source of new musical expression.

Scelsi's approach to microtones was driven not merely by technical or aesthetic choices, but by philosophical and spiritual exploration. He aimed to transcend the limitations of 12-TET, discover new realms of sound expression, and connect with a deeper, more essencial power of sound.
This exploration led to the development of a new compositional technique called 'spectral music'. Later composers such as Gérard Grisey and Tristan Murail followed this stream, developing new approaches based on the physical properties of sound and overtone structures.^[20]

Scelsi's compositions can be viewed as meditations on the essence of sound and its ability to evoke direct and intuitive musical experiences. This attitude suggests to contemporary musicians and listeners the importance of experiencing music more deeply and physically.

Acoustic Exploration and Development

Gérard Grisey, who inherited from Scelsi the musical view of focusing on the 'living nature' of sound objects and perceiving sound not as a static entity but as a living dynamic object with birth, life, and decay, is precisely the person who awakened my bodily sensations and sense of 'listening', as described in 'Sound Vortex Awakening'.

Grisey's perspective of treating sound as a living dynamic object was distinct from traditional compositional methods that often treated sound as a fixed element within a musical system. Grisey's approach aimed to connect the conceptual framework of the score with the perceptual experience of the audience, emphasizing the physical and cultural aspects of sound.

Grisey's works stemmed from a deep understanding of the physical properties of sound and a desire to create music that resonates with the listener's perceptual experience. He first considered the spectral and qualities of sound from its physical aspect, leaving cultural interpretation to the audience. This approach enabled a more intuitive and direct engagement with sound, and Grisey believed it could evoke a direct and intuitive experience of music.^[21] (And I actually embodied this: 'Sound Vortex Awakening'）

As a performer with the will to give life to the sounds I play, Grisey's concept of the 'living nature' of sound objects is particularly compelling. It suggests that as performers, we are not merely playing notes, but moving living material.
This perspective aligns with a physical approach to music-making that prioritizes bodily engagement with sound. These aspects of Grisey's work resonate with my own artistic practice and motivate my focus on his contributions.

The approaches of Scelsi and Grisey challenge performers to consider the physical and perceptual reality of sound beyond the traditional framework of the score. As a performer, this perspective encourages a deeper, more embodied interaction with music, where each sound is nurtured and brought to life through the act of performance.

Thus, the background for composers choosing to use microtones on the piano often included a strong desire for liberation from the 'prison bars' of 12-tone equal temperament. It was not merely a musical experiment, but a quest for a deeper musical experience and an attempt to regain connection with human senses and physicality. I have interpreted this as the importance of listening to the 'ma' between sounds, listening to the sound within sound, and have focused on dynamic interactions at various layers. This exploration approaches the essence of dynamic interaction of 'listening' that unfolds throughout 'Mycloperspective'.

Based on these considerations, the next lens 'Timbral Revelations' will further examine the possibilities of deeper acoustic experiences.
Additionally, in Mycloperspective, I will take a closer look at how contemporary composers 'post-Grisey', with whom I have actually collaborated, have developed new musical expressions using microtones.

1. Duffin, Ross W. 2008. How Equal Temperament Ruined Harmony (and Why You Should Care). 1st ed. Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar: W. W. Norton & Company, Incorporated.
2. Jorgensen, Owen. 1991. Tuning: Containing the Perfection of Eighteenth-Century Temperament, the Lost Art of Nineteenth-Century Temperament and the Science of Equal Temperament; Complete with Instructions for Aural and Electronic Tuning. East Lansing, Mich: Michigan State Univ. Press.
3. [ET] is, however, so difficult to realize by the ordinary methods of tuning, that "equal temperament" ...has probably never been attained in this country, with any approach to mathematical precision. (Alexander J. Ellis, "On the Temperament of Musical Instruments with Fixed Tones" (1864))
4. Fujieda, Mamoru. The Archeology of Sound. Translated by Sanae Yoshida. Tokyo, Japan: ONGAKU NO TOMO SHA CORP., 1998.
5. Ibid.
6. THE BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION. 1940. ‘BBC Handbook 1940’. THE BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION 1552:36–37.
7. ISO 16:1975
   Acoustics — Standard tuning frequency (Standard musical pitch)
   Specifies the frequency for the note A in the treble stave and shall be 440 Hz. Tuning and retuning shall be effected by instruments producing it within an accuracy of 0,5 Hz.
   (https://www.iso.org/standard/3601.html)
8. Sakamoto, Ryuichi, and Kenichiro Mogi. 2005. ‘From digital to empathy. What is the qualia of Japan as a country? (デジタルから共感へ。日本という国のクオリアは？)’. Translated by Sanae Yoshida. Dictionary, 2005. https://ameblo.jp/kenmogi/entry-12796610233.html.
9. Molleson, Kate. 2022. Sound within Sound: Opening Our Ears to the 20th Century. London: Faber.
10. FORKERT, Annika. ‘Microtonal Restraint’. Journal of the Royal Musical Association Vol.145 (1) (May 2020): 75–118. https://doi.org/10.1017/rma.2020.6.
11. Molleson, Kate. 2022. Sound within Sound: Opening Our Ears to the 20th Century. London: Faber.
12. Boatwright, Howard. ‘Ives’ Quarter-Tone Impressions’. Perspectives of New Music, Spring-Summer 1965.
13. Fujieda, Mamoru. The Archeology of Sound. Translated by Sanae Yoshida. Tokyo, Japan: ONGAKU NO TOMO SHA CORP., 1998.
14. Harry Partch, “Bitter Music,” in Bitter Music: Collected Journals, Essays, Introductions, and Librettos (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1991): 12.
15. Partch, Harry. Genesis of a Music: An Account of a Creative Work, Its Roots and Its Fulfillments. 2nd, enlarged ed ed. A Da Capo Paperback. New York, NY: Da Capo Press, 1979.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Fusi, Marco. ‘Improvising with Scelsi: Building a Creative Performance Practice in Dialogue with Giacinto Scelsi’s Artefacts’. Musique En Acte 1 (2020).; Scelsi, Giacinto. 2006. Les anges sont ailleurs. Edited by Sharon E. Kanach. Arles: Actes Sud.
19. Rubin, Justin. ‘Microtonality’. In Music Composition & Theory. Accessed 4 April 2024. https://open.lib.umn.edu/musiccomposition/chapter/microtonality/.
20. However, it should be noted that Grisey himself disliked formal classifications such as 'spectral music school', and instead emphasized attitudes towards sound and the spirit of exploration.
21. Bündler, David. ‘Interview with Gérard Grisey, 18 January 1996, Los Angeles’’. Accessed 19 April 2024. http://www.angelfire.com/music2/davidbundler/grisey.html.