Musical Crossroads:

The local in the shadow of a universal canon

I believe that the standardization of 12-tone equal temperament (12-TET) in the world of music bears a striking resemblance to the processes of colonialism and imperialism in society.

While I have already written about the history of the relationship between microtones and 12-TET in 'Piano Evolution', here I would like to indirectly explore microtones in society by applying the history discussed in the 'Piano Evolution' to society.

First, I'd like to revisit a passage from the 'Introduction':

Before the standardization of 12-tone equal temperament, people enjoyed music by listening to the temperament with their ears. As the 12-tone equal temperament was not standardized, the concept of 'microtones' could not have existed, and a wide variety of sounds, timbres, and temperaments abounded.
However, when the 12-TET system or rule was introduced into this diversity, a hierarchy was created. Other peripheral sounds that fell outside the system were coded and territorialized into one of the 12-TET.
The tones of the 12-TET established in this way were "fixed" or "anchored," and organized on the keyboard of the piano as an instrument.
Consequently, pianists became subordinate to the physically embedded conditions of the piano.

Although there would be various interpretations possible, the basic interpretation here is that the phrase "Other peripheral sounds that fell outside the system are coded and territorialized into one of the 12-TET (a key on the piano keyboard)" can be understood as follows:
"peripheral" refers to the diversity of colonized countries and regions, while 12-TET (a key on the piano keyboard) represents a country of the empire^[1].
This will be addressed in the first half of this page.

The final passage, "The pianist becomes subordinate to the physically embedded conditions of the piano," can be interpreted as "I (the pianist) become subordinate to the Western (piano) system (with its physically embedded conditions)."
This will be addressed in the latter half of the page.

Therefore, this page is structured as follows:

• Part One: Coding and Territorialization of the Periphery
• At the end, a summary of the Part One.
• 'Interlude'/ 'ma': Imperialism and Colonialism as Reflected in Musical Forms
• Part Two: A Postcolonial Perspective - Towards Liberation from Subordination

I should note that the aim here is not to meticulously examine the movements of society and the history of its reactions, but rather to promote a deeper understanding of the project by positioning microtones from a different perspective.

And here, 'Musical Crossroads', as the title suggests, is intended to serve as a meeting point where phenomena within 'Mycloperspective' and 'Myclopedia' intersect freely. I should also note that this is written within the scope of phenomena interrelated within 'Mycloperspective' and 'Myclopedia', in the context of 'applying to society', which is an extremely grand context.

This page and the next page, 'Echoes of Youth', are particularly paired. While this page focuses on historical aspects, 'Echoes of Youth' reflects the author's own thoughts.

On this page, I intend to write primarily referencing the works of Edward W. Said, an Arab-Palestinian American literary scholar, and Sara Ahmed, an Australian-British gender researcher with Pakistani roots.
It is crucial to emphasize that the intention here (and presumably for anyone) is not to engage in a discourse of opposition between the Occident (West) and the Orient (East).
Rather, by exploring this history and accepting and presenting both the good and bad aspects of both cultures as they are, we might open new doors for cultural dialogue and creative possibilities.

This approach extends to the realm of music as well. There is no intention whatsoever to pit classical music against contemporary music and so on. For me, it's a fact that I could never rank Beethoven, Grisey, Nirvana, gamelan, Ringo Shiina, or Okinawan music against each other.

Part One

Oppression of Diversity: Standardization of 12-TET and Systems of Domination

Just as 12-TET suppressed musical diversity, various systems of domination have standardized and oppressed diverse cultures and values. In the world of music, before the introduction of 12-TET, various tuning systems and temperaments existed. For example, in Bach's era, irregular temperaments were preferred, giving each key a unique resonance. This diversity stimulated musicians' creativity and enabled rich expression. (See 'Piano Evolution')

Similarly, in societies before the formation of modern systems of domination, diverse cultures, languages (including dialects), and customs existed in each region. This diversity was a source of uniqueness and creativity for each area. However, during the process of modernization, this diversity was suppressed and standardized in the name of 'efficiency' and 'unity'. (Related page: 'Colonialism Within the Self' in the page 'Timbral Revelations' and 'Colonialism Within the Self')

The Industrial Revolution and the Spread of 12-TET

The Industrial Revolution, which began in England in the late 18th century, had a significant impact on the world of music.
The development of mechanization and mass production techniques was applied to piano manufacturing. In the 19th century, the introduction of iron frames and overstringing technology expanded the piano's range and enabled greater volume (a clearer and louder 'voice').
This technological progress promoted the standardization of instrument manufacturing and music education based on 12-TET.

Simultaneously, the Industrial Revolution brought economic superiority to Western countries and accelerated imperialistic expansion. Seeking new raw materials and markets, Western powers colonized vast areas of Asia and Africa.
This imperialistic expansion was justified by the pursuit of economic benefits, competition between nations, and a sense of moral superiority in the form of a 'civilizing mission'.

Colonization by Western Powers and Cultural Oppression

From the late 19th to early 20th century, Western powers colonized vast areas of Asia and Africa. In this process, local cultures and traditions were suppressed, and Western values and institutions were forcibly introduced.

In the case of Okinawa, it was annexed by Japan in 1879 through the Ryukyu Disposition, followed by assimilation policies that suppressed language and culture. After World War II, it was placed under American rule, forcing further cultural transformation. Even after its reversion to Japan in 1972, the effects of colonialism continue, such as the base issue.^[2]

In Bali, Dutch troops began their invasion in 1846 and had the entire island under their control by 1908. The Dutch colonial government implemented a 'Balinization of Bali' policy, which, under the pretext of protecting Balinese culture, actually created a perverse situation where the Dutch imposed their definition of 'tradition' on the Balinese. In this process, Balinese culture was reconstructed as a tourist resource, detached from its original context.^[3]

Amami Oshima had a similar experience. After the war, it was placed under American rule and returned to Japan in 1953. There was a period when traditional culture was suppressed - a time when singing island songs and speaking the local dialect were prohibited, causing traditional culture to decline and making it difficult to pass on to the next generation.^[4]

Introduction of the System and Formation of Hierarchies

Just as the system of imperialism was introduced to the world, 12-TET was introduced to the world of Western music. This resulted in the creation of hierarchies in both cases.
In the world, the values of the empire were deemed 'correct', while other cultures were labeled as 'primitive' or 'barbaric'.
Similarly in Western music, the notes of 12-TET were considered 'correct', while other sounds were deemed 'incorrect'. (See also 'Colonialism Within the Self')

Dominant systems construct 'standardized social systems' through educational and legal institutions, limiting individual and cultural 'freedom' within specific frameworks. At the same time, it attempts to control and integrate ‘peripheral elements that do not belong to the system’ into the existing system through various means.
This process is strikingly similar to what empires did in their colonies and what 12-TET did in the world of Western music.

The Symbolism of the Piano and 12-TET: The Imperialistic Expansion of Western Music

The piano and 12-tone equal temperament (12-TET) can be seen as symbols of the development and expansion of Western music. Since the 18th century, this tuning system has become the foundation of tonal music systems, enabling free modulation and dramatically enhancing the complexity and expressiveness of Western classical music. Simultaneously, the structural evolution of the piano achieved a wider range and volume. As a result, the piano became central to Western music, beloved by many composers and performers.

However, this development also led to the marginalization of other musical forms and expressions. With the standardization of 12-TET, subtle intervals and unique resonances that had existed before were treated as 'mistakes' or 'impurities' and excluded from mainstream music culture.
This process is similar to how imperialistic expansion suppressed other cultures and values, imposing its own standards under the guise of 'civilization'. (See also 'Beyond Boundaries')

In this process, 12-TET functioned as a 'European invention', establishing the boundary between Western and 'non-Western' music, becoming a method to 'identify' the distinction between self and other. Microtones were positioned as 'deviations' while simultaneously playing a role in forming the identity of Western music.

However, the historical consensus on the origin of 12-TET also deserves reconsideration. From a historical perspective, the fact that Chinese mathematician Zhu Zaiyu is credited with first devising 12-TET ^[5] challenges the Western-centric view of 12-TET's origin and demonstrates the importance of cultural exchange in the development of music theory. This fact suggests that the development of music theory is not limited to a single cultural sphere but is the result of interactions and parallel developments between different civilizations. (See also: 'Non-History' in 'Microtones in Motion')

Considering the relationship between 12-TET and microtones in light of this historical reassessment, we can see that the 'deviation' of microtones not only signifies a departure from the norms of 12-TET but also functions to define those norms themselves.
The observation that "what deviates does not take us off line but creates instead 'small differences' that approximate the qualities that are assumed to pass along the line^[6]" suggests that microtones also play a role in reaffirming and reinforcing the 'standard' of 12-TET.

Marginalization and Coding

Just as colonies and their cultures that fell outside the imperial system were coded and territorialized into one of the empires, peripheral sounds that fall outside the 12-TET system are coded and territorialized into one of the 12-TETs.

This process is deeply related to the structure of Western representation and domination of the East, as pointed out by Edward Said in "Orientalism^[7]".

Said defines Orientalism as "a Western style for dominating, restructuring and having authority over the Orient". This definition is crucial in understanding how 12-TET has dealt with non-Western musical elements.
12-TET has functioned as a 'standard' or 'universal' of Western music, through which the boundary between Western and 'non-Western' music was established, becoming a method to 'identify' the distinction between self and other.

In this process, microtones were positioned as 'deviations' while simultaneously playing a role in forming the identity of Western music. Borrowing from Sara Ahmed's perspective in "Queer Phenomenology^[8]", the observation that "colonialism makes the world 'white', which is, of course, a world 'ready' for certain kinds of bodies, as a world that puts certain objects within their reach" can be explained as the process where 12-TET is equated with 'whiteness' and microtones with 'otherness'.

This process of marginalization is strikingly evident in our daily lives. Often, when minority groups raise issues that the majority doesn't perceive as problematic, their concerns are dismissed or ignored. For the majority, much of their experience exists within a comfort zone - a metaphorical box of familiarity and ease. When minorities voice concerns from outside this box, the majority often struggles to even recognize these issues as valid problems. (See also '4th movement' in 'Cultural Kaleidoscope')
Problems that don't exist in one's comfortable place are invisible and inaudible, so they can't be perceived as problems.

This can be likened to the opening scenes of the movie "Barbie^[9]".
In the movie "Barbie", the Barbie dolls (representing women in a matriarchal utopia) live in a glittering, perfect world where everything caters to their needs and desires. Meanwhile, the Ken dolls (representing men in this world) are largely overlooked and undervalued, existing on the periphery of Barbie's society.

This scenario brilliantly illustrates our point:

The Barbies, basking in their privilege, assume that their perfect world is equally wonderful for everyone. They might say, "Surely Ken is having a great time too! How could there be any problems?" This attitude mirrors the majority's blindness to minority issues in our society.

Just as the Barbies can't comprehend Ken's dissatisfaction, those in positions of privilege often fail to recognize or understand the challenges faced by marginalized groups. The movie uses this role reversal to highlight how easy it is for a dominant group to be oblivious to the struggles of others, assuming that their experience is universal.

This parallel powerfully demonstrates how systemic inequalities can persist even when they're not intentionally malicious - simply because the privileged majority lacks awareness of experiences outside their own.
It's a perfect embodiment of what Ahmed describes as "a world 'ready' for certain kinds of bodies" - in this case, a world entirely oriented around Barbie, leaving Ken's experiences and needs largely invisible and unacknowledged.

Furthermore, Said states, "In the implied contrast between the local and the universal, I think the local is more interesting than the universal. It depends where you look at it from. If you look at it from the point of view of the colonized world, as Fanon says, the universal is always achieved at the expense of the native.^[10]". This perspective suggests that the 'universality' of 12-TET was achieved at the sacrifice of 'local' musical expressions such as microtones.

This process in music needs to be understood within a broader cultural context^[11]. As Said points out, "For in the encounter between the West and its various "Others" (to employ a fashionable, but still useful word) there was often the tactic of drawing a defensive perimeter called "the West" around anything done by individual nations or persons who concentrated a self-appointed Western essence in themselves^[12]". This tactic explains the process by which 12-TET was positioned as the 'essence' of Western music and marginalized other tuning systems.

Thus, a structure emerges where 12-TET (the West) becomes a universal standard and holds cultural power (imperialistic expansion), resulting in microtones (minorities, natives) being excluded from the mainstream of music and losing their significance. This perspective provides an important viewpoint for considering issues of cultural hegemony and diversity in music.

Summary to this point, especially Orientalism

Orientalism is a concept proposed by Edward Said in his 1978 book "Orientalism^[13]", referring to the way the West attempted to depict and understand the East from the 18th century to the mid-20th century.
This concept was critically analyzed as a form of cultural hegemony based on Western superiority.
In the late 18th century Europe, an image of Orientals was formed as "lustful and lazy, unable to grasp their own language and geography, lacking the skills to run an independent state, and physically inferior^[14]".

Based on this perception, Orientals were deemed incapable of speaking about their own countries, and Western linguists, geographers, and mining experts conducted field studies. Institutions such as Oriental societies and university courses in Oriental studies were established around them, and under the pretext of "pioneering undeveloped lands", the West strengthened its economic and political dominance over the Orient.^[15]

However, there is no geographical, political, religious, linguistic, ethnic, economic, cultural, or historical basis for the West to collectively refer to the vast region from Turkey to Egypt to Japan as the "Orient". The Orient was rather a concept created in the minds of Europeans, an "other" invented by Western society to establish its own identity and justify its domination over different cultures.

Through the representation of "Orientals", diverse peoples who were originally incomprehensible were lumped together, and the self-understanding of "Europeans" was established as "something different from such Orientals". As Sara Ahmed points out,^[16] "White people are universal, it is said and Black people are not^[17]". If to be human is to be white, then to be not white is to inhabit the negative: it is to be "not."^[18]

This phenomenon can also be seen in the process of establishing 12-TET as the 'universal' standard in music. For those raised within the framework of Western music, 12-TET is the 'obvious' tuning system, and microtones that deviate from it are perceived as 'problems' or 'deviations'.
However, it's necessary to understand that this perception itself is rooted in a specific cultural context and is not universal.

Thus, Orientalism functioned as a cultural apparatus for the West to gain its cultural superiority and identity by alienating the "other" called the Orient, while simultaneously managing and dominating the "Orient". This demonstrates that what is considered "universal" is actually viewed from a specific (Western) perspective, and in the process, local cultures and values have been sacrificed. This recognition becomes an important critique of cultural imperialism.

Imperialism and Colonialism as Reflected in Musical Forms

Like Said, who was "in my preponderantly Western education (both musical and academic) I seemed to be dedicated to an ethic of productivity and of overcoming obstacles,（…）^[19]", I followed a predetermined path of music competitions, Bach, Beethoven, and music conservatories for about 20 years until my second year in Norway. Just as I began questioning everything related to this established route, I encountered Messiaen's music, which steered me towards contemporary music.

This experience aligns with Said's analysis:

"whereas the main Western musical tradition by and large relies upon development, control, inventiveness, and rhythm in the service of forward logical control, Messiaen's music is consciously at some eccentric distance from these characteristics. Instead his work emphasizes repetition and stasis.
His harmonies, as Paul Griffiths says in his essential book on Messiaen^[20], are 'objects of contemplation, not subjects of action'.
He cares neither for the strictly centralized rigor of polyphony - heterophony is what he employs - nor for the attitude to time that stresses its march forward. "

Said, Edward W. 1993. Musical Elaborations. Wellek Library Lectures. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.

In retrospect, my many questions about the established path likely stemmed from feeling constantly suppressed and confined by discipline within the Western-centric education system in Japan, especially in Western music education. (I discuss this in 'Echoes of Youth' under "How differences in sensibility can sometimes make mutual understanding difficult.") The new door opened by encountering Messiaen allowed me to appreciate "to luxuriate in all sorts of byways, to linger over details and changes in text, to digress and then digress from the digression." Through this new perspective, I've become more attentive to my past and future directions, my way of being, and the transformations in my artistic journey.

Said points out similarities between musical forms and imperialist thinking. He suggests that sonata form exemplifies how the composer controls everything, with the thematic statement and its developments being strictly processed by the composer.
This description implies that sonata form functions beyond mere musical structure as a symbol of domination and control.^[21]

On the other hand, Said states that in forms based on what he calls 'developing variations', in which conflict and domination and the overcoming of tension through forced reconciliation is not the issue.^[22] This contrast reflects differences in cultural attitudes and worldviews beyond musical forms.^[23]

Said interprets this contrast from a cultural perspective: "Those are the culture practices that I think one could use as a typology of other culture practices: they’re based on the whole idea of community, overlapping vs. coercive domination and enlightenment (...) There’s this whole thing where the question of whether you try to resist the time and erect the structure, or you try to ride time and live inside the time."^[24] (This links to the concept of "Riding the Wave" in 'Timbral Revelations' & "Scelsi" in 'Piano Evolution'）

Ryuichi Sakamoto offers an interesting view on this point. Citing Debussy's influence from Indonesian gamelan music, Sakamoto notes that Debussy began writing floating music about sea and clouds, rather than the solid, architectural music composed by post-Beethoven composers.^[25]

This perspective provides an important viewpoint for considering issues of cultural hegemony and diversity through musical forms. While traditional Western musical forms attempt to dominate and structure time, musicians like Messiaen and Umm Kulthum^[26] take an approach of placing themselves within time and going with its flow. This could be seen as a contrast between an imperialistic attitude and a more harmonious, inclusive worldview.

Here, Said’s observation is crucial: "It hardly needs saying that all of these immensely influential theories of cumulative and apocalyptic force^[27], elevate admittedly discernible patterns in Western society during the modern period to the level of the essential and the universal. To call the theories therefore Eurocentric or imperial is, I believe, not an exaggeration."
These theories, he notes, are characterized by "extreme detailed articulation, of self-reflective self-centeredness, of inevitabilism and aesthetic pessimism," and they "project no escape from, and no real alternative to, those patterns."^[28]

This perspective can also be applied to the analysis of musical forms. Traditional Western musical forms, particularly sonata form, with their structural rigor and self-contained nature, can be interpreted as excluding other musical forms/genres and methods of expression while implicitly asserting the superiority of Western music.

Postcolonial Perspective

The postcolonial perspective provides a critical framework for examining the impact of colonialism and its subsequent cultural and social influences.
Particularly, by reframing the situation mentioned at the beginning, "The pianist becomes subordinate to the physically embedded conditions of the piano," in the broader context of "I (the pianist) become subordinate to the Western (piano) system (with its physically embedded conditions)," the significance of this project aiming for liberation from this subordinate relationship becomes apparent.

Minority Voices and Critique of the 'God Trick'

The attitude of assuming one can comprehend things from above and believing it to be universal lacks human embodiment. The absence of the body also means the absence of relationships and interactions. Haraway calls this illusion of being able to see the world from a universal viewpoint that belongs nowhere the 'god trick'^[29] (Related to the Exhibition Method of the Himeyuri Peace Memorial Museum in 'Shimauta & Okinawa': The museum embodies the importance of situated knowledge by conveying history through individual voices of those who experienced it, rather than adopting an overhead perspective.)
However, in reality, all knowledge is embedded in specific situations and contexts. This is a crucial perspective, especially in listening to the voices of marginalized cultures. (See also 'The Value of Different Auditory Experiences' in 'Echoes of Culture')

The microtonal piano project can be seen as an attempt to avoid this 'god trick' and emphasize embodiment and relationality. By reinterpreting the piano, a symbolic presence in Western music, and liberating it from its physical constraints, it explores new musical possibilities. (Related page: 'Colonialism Within the Self' in the page 'Timbral Revelations')

Structures of Exploitation and Superficial Justification

Sekai Farai's words sharply point out the structures of exploitation and their superficial justification. "There is a sympathetic veneer to all forms of exploitation — capitalists call it competition, colonial anthropologists called it curiosity, engineers call it logic, design calls it aesthetics and research calls it empathy… Empathy is an extractive technology"^[30]. This perspective is important in understanding the structures of exploitation and oppression in human expression and creative activities.

The microtonal piano project reveals these structures of exploitation and provides a means to resist them. By questioning the dominance of 12-tone equal temperament, which has been justified under the names of 'aesthetics' and 'logic', and exploring new possibilities of expression, it aims to realize true diversity.

In this context, it's necessary to consider the 'research' aspect of the microtonal piano project as well. Farai's observation about the relationship between 'research' and 'empathy' can be applied to this project. The exploration of microtones is not merely curiosity or a technical challenge, but an attempt to pursue diversity and inclusivity in human expression and creation. However, a constantly self-critical attitude is required to ensure that structures of 'extraction' or 'exploitation' are not unconsciously reproduced in this process.

Farai's statement "research calls it empathy" prompts a reconsideration of the importance of 'interaction' in the microtonal piano project. True 'empathy' is born not through unilateral understanding or extraction, but through mutual dialogue and transformation. This project aims for genuine dialogue with diverse cultures and expressions beyond existing frameworks, and it's important that the researchers themselves also transform in this process. (Related page: 'Echoes of Youth'）

Collective Memory and Structures of Domination

For people with collective memories, these memories become nostalgia. (Link to 'Non-History' in 'Microtones in Motion')
However, the manipulation of collective memory to exert control is occurring worldwide. Colonial domination involved the deliberate destruction of the colonized people's cultural memory and its replacement with the colonizer's memory. Education played a crucial role in this process, suppressing local cultural memory through Eurocentric education, forcibly injecting the colonizer's values and historical perspectives, and erasing or fragmenting the collective memory of the colonized.

Moleba's research^[31] symbolically illustrates this complex relationship between collective memory and cultural identity. His metaphor of the 'big house' represents the nation or society, vividly showing the positioning of individuals and groups within it. The 'photographs on the walls of the house' symbolize official history and collective memory.
As Moleba points out, many immigrants and minority groups cannot find themselves in these 'family photographs'. This demonstrates how collective memory tends to be constructed based on specific perspectives and experiences, excluding others.

In the musical context of this project, the spread of 12-tone equal temperament has played a similar role. Non-Western musical traditions and the use of microtones have been regarded as 'primitive' or 'impure' and suppressed through Western music education systems. This project is also an attempt to resist such manipulation of collective memory, rediscovering and re-evaluating lost musical memories.

Moleba's attempt to 'take new family photographs' resonates with the purpose of the microtonal piano project. This project aims to add new voices and expressions to the 'big house' of music, striving to create a more inclusive and diverse musical culture. It's not just about 'being in the photograph' but also an attempt to redefine the structure and meaning of the 'house' itself.

This process can be seen as an effort to re-evaluate memories and expressions suppressed by colonial domination and cultural hegemony, and to construct new collective memories.

Warning Against Epistemological Violence and Resistance to Cultural Commodification

The risk of 'epistemological violence^[32]' pointed out by Gayatri Spivak - the danger of dominant groups suppressing local and Indigenous knowledge by prioritizing their own - is ever-present in the world of music. While recognizing this danger, we need to promote dialogue and exchange between different cultures and forms of expression. This process involves exploring the possibilities of diverse musical expressions and creating new musical experiences while respecting our differences, rather than seeking a single 'correct' music or theory. (See also 'The Value of Different Auditory Experiences' in 'Echoes of Culture')

The case of Bali symbolically demonstrates the complex relationship between colonialism and cultural resistance. Colonial rule, which began with the Dutch military invasion in 1846, attempted to fundamentally transform Balinese culture. However, the Balinese people continued to resist in their own ways. According to a story Ryuichi Sakamoto heard from an elder who was like a leader of local performing arts^[33]:
"There is not a single professional musician in Bali."
Based on the understanding that arts would decline if people received money for music, Balinese musicians have other professions and consciously avoid commodifying music.
This can be seen as a strategy to protect culture, learned from the experience of Dutch colonial rule. By not commodifying music and incorporating it into daily life, the Balinese people are trying to maintain their cultural identity. (Read further about Bali and Gamelan: 'Gamelan')

Sakamoto further introduces a historical episode that demonstrates the importance of Balinese music culture:

"I've heard a story that when the Dutch invaded Bali in the past, the Balinese people barricaded themselves in the palace and played gamelan. They countered military force with music. Of course, they were quickly shot by the Dutch army, but this shows how important music was to the Balinese people."

Sakamoto, Ryuichi. 2009. Musik macht frei: A Memoir by Ryuichi Sakamoto. Tokyo: Shincho Bunko.

This shows that for the Balinese, music is not mere entertainment but the core of their cultural identity.

This Balinese example can be seen as a form of resistance against Western capitalist values and colonial knowledge systems. At the same time, it highlights the importance of the coexistence of diverse musical cultures and creative dialogue that the microtonal piano project aims for. This project, too, aims to resist epistemological violence and create a more inclusive musical culture by questioning existing musical systems and knowledge structures and exploring new possibilities for musical expression.

Finally, I'd like to conclude with a quote from Said:
"multiple identity, the polyphony of many voices playing off against each other, without, as I say, the need to reconcile them, just to hold them together (...). More than one culture, more than one awareness, both in its negative and its positive modes. It’s basic instinct.^[34]" （This idea resonates with Fumio Koizumi's concept of 'parallel existence' discussed in 'Cultivating Culture'.）

1. Empire refers to a centralized political system that dominates vast territories and encompasses diverse ethnicities and cultures. It typically persists for long periods and tends to expand its control over other regions based on military and economic power. The colonial rule by Western powers is closely related to this concept of empire. (Michael W. Doyle, Empires (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), 30-47.)
2. Taira, Koji. "Troubled National Identity: The Ryukyuans/Okinawans." In Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity, edited by Michael Weiner, 140-177. London: Routledge, 1997.
3. Picard, Michel. "Cultural Tourism in Bali: Cultural Performances as Tourist Attraction." Indonesia 49 (1990): 37-74.
4. Talking with Minami Kizuki! Amami folk songs and phonetics （城南海と語る！奄美民謡と音声学）. 2023. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5kVnwAd-r_A.
5. "From a historical perspective, it is noteworthy that many scholars, including Kenneth Robinson, consider the Chinese mathematician Zhu Zaiyu to be the first in the world to devise 12-tone equal temperament. This clearly calls into question Western ownership or 'reform movements'." (Robinson, Kenneth. A critical study of Chu Tsai-yü's contribution to the theory of equal temperament in Chinese music. (Sinologica Coloniensia, Bd. 9.) x, 136 pp. Wiesbaden; Choboter, Matt A. "UNBURYING, FROM LIMINALS, EMERGING: INTO THE MICROTONAL PREPARED PIANO." Research Catalogue. Accessed December 20, 2024.) https://www.researchcatalogue.net/view/1656067/1661191.
6. Ahmed, Sara. 2007. Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others. 2. printing. Durham: Duke University Press.
7. Said, Edward W. 2014. Orientalism. 25. anniversary edition with a new preface by the author. New York: Vintage Books Edition.
8. Ahmed, Sara. 2007. Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others. 2. printing. Durham: Duke University Press.
9. Gerwig, Greta, dir. 2023. Barbie. Warner Bros. Pictures.
10. Said, Edward W. 2007. Power, Politics, and Culture. Westminster: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
11. Music should not be viewed as an isolated phenomenon, but understood within the broader context of society, history, and politics. The spread of 12-tone equal temperament (12TET) should be seen not just as a development in music theory, but within the larger historical currents of Western cultural expansion and colonialism.
12. Said, Edward W. 1993. Musical Elaborations. Wellek Library Lectures. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
13. Said, Edward W. 2014. Orientalism. 25. anniversary edition with a new preface by the author. New York: Vintage Books Edition.
14. According to Edward Said's "Orientalism" (1978), 18th and 19th-century Western scholars and writers often portrayed Orientals as "irrational, depraved (fallen), childlike, 'different'," in contrast to the rational, virtuous, mature, and "normal" European. In the 19th century, stereotypes of Orientals as "lazy, dishonest, and sexually licentious" were widespread in Europe.
15. In the 19th century, Western scholars often believed that Orientals were incapable of properly understanding or explaining their own history and culture, asserting that only Westerners could 'correctly' study the Orient. (Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. Columbia University Press, 1998.) This led to the establishment of Oriental studies departments and societies in Western universities. For example, the Royal Asiatic Society in Britain was founded in 1823, and the American Oriental Society in 1873.
16. Ahmed, Sara. 2007. Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others. 2. printing. Durham: Duke University Press.
17. The quote "White people are universal, but black people are not" is from Frantz Fanon's "Black Skin, White Masks" (1952), a foundational text in postcolonial studies that examines the psychological effects of colonialism on both the colonizer and the colonized. Fanon, F. (1952). Black Skin, White Masks. New York: Grove Press.
18. Gordon, Lewis R. 1999. ‘‘Fanon, Philosophy, Racism.’’ In Racism and Philosophy, edited by Susan E. Babbitt and Sue Campbell. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
19. Said, Edward W. 1993. Musical Elaborations. Wellek Library Lectures. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
20. Paul Giffiths, Messaien and the Music of Time (London: Faber and Faber,1985) P. 15.
21. Said, Edward W. 2007. Power, Politics, and Culture. Westminster: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
22. Ibid.
23. Scelsi also provides a deep insight into this point. "I will say only that in general, western classical music has devoted practically all of its attention to the musical framework, which it calls the musical form. It has neglected to study the laws of sonorous energy, to think of music in terms of energy, which is life. Thus it has produced thousands of magnificent frameworks which are often rather empty, for they are only the results of a constructive imagination, which is very different from the creative imagination. The melodies themselves move from sound to sound, but the intervals are empty abysses, for the notes lack sonic energy. The inner space is empty." (Reish, Gregory N. 2006. ‘Una Nota Sola: Giacinto Scelsi and the Genesis of Music on a Single Note’. Journal of Musicological Research 25 (2): 149–89.)
24. Said, Edward W. 2007. Power, Politics, and Culture. Westminster: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
25. Sakamoto, Ryuichi. 2009. Musik macht frei: A Memoir by Ryuichi Sakamoto. Tokyo: Shincho Bunko.
26. In an interview, Said recalled his early exposure to Umm Kulthum (also spelled Oum Kalthoum): "The one time I had a big exposure to Arabic music—I was nine at the time—we went to hear Oum Kalthoum [a famous Egyptian singer] and I was revolted by it, it just struck me as horrible... there was no form to the music that I could identify, it was just repetition with tiny differences in each repetition... it contrasted terribly with the western music, you know Mozart, Beethoven and Mendelssohn, that I loved and could sometimes play." (Last Interview 23'35"-24'26") Tore Holst. 2012. “’Parallel Lines’ and Lives: Edward Said As a Musician and Critic”. Another Life, edited by Mélanie Joseph-Vilain and Judith Misrahi-Barak : Presses universitaires de la Méditerranée.
27. - Thomas Mann, Foucault, Adorno, et al. -
28. Said, Edward W. 1993. Musical Elaborations. Wellek Library Lectures. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
29. Haraway, Donna. 1988. ‘Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective’. Feminist Studies 14 (3): 575.
30. Marcus, Miranda. 2020. ‘The God Trick in Data and Design: How We’re Replicating Colonial Ideas in Tech’. Towards Data Science, November. https://towardsdatascience.com/the-god-trick-in-data-and-design-4ec71e19811.
31. Eliot Moleba. 2024. ‘Alternative Histori[Es]: A Place Where Something Happened’. https://doi.org/10.22501/rc.2851282.
32. Spivak introduces the concept of 'epistemic violence' to explain how dominant groups suppress or marginalize the knowledge and perspectives of subordinate or colonized peoples. This occurs through the imposition of Western methods of knowing and the denial of the legitimacy of non-Western knowledge systems. In the context of music, this phenomenon may manifest as privileging Western music theory and practice over indigenous or non-Western musical traditions.
    Spivak also warns about the 'epistemic violence' that intellectuals may unconsciously exercise. This means that researchers need to be constantly aware of their own cultural background and privileged position, and critically reflect on these. (Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1988. ‘Can the Subaltern Speak’. In Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, 271–313. Basingstoke: Macmillan.)
33. Sakamoto, Ryuichi. 2009. Musik macht frei: A Memoir by Ryuichi Sakamoto. Tokyo: Shincho Bunko.
34. Said, Edward W. 2007. Power, Politics, and Culture. Westminster: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.